Publish party-position estimates and validation materials

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Armin Seimel
2026-08-13 15:26:21 +00:00
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"release","iso2","country","first_year","last_year","parties","election_year_rows","both_text_expert","text_only","expert_only","temporal_propagation"
"v0","AL","Albania",1991,2021,9,51,19,23,9,0
"v0","AM","Armenia",1995,2021,8,26,25,1,0,0
"v0","AR","Argentina",1983,2019,9,51,27,6,9,9
"v0","AT","Austria",1949,2019,7,84,64,20,0,0
"v0","AU","Australia",1946,2022,9,129,70,53,6,0
"v0","AZ","Azerbaijan",1995,2015,3,9,5,1,3,0
"v0","BA","Bosnia and Herzegovina",1990,2022,9,59,43,16,0,0
"v0","BE","Belgium",1946,2019,20,194,114,77,3,0
"v0","BG","Bulgaria",1990,2017,12,43,37,5,0,1
"v0","BO","Bolivia",1979,2014,2,13,2,1,10,0
"v0","BR","Brazil",1982,2022,8,69,3,57,6,3
"v0","BY","Belarus",1995,2008,1,4,1,0,3,0
"v0","CA","Canada",1945,2021,8,104,64,39,1,0
"v0","CH","Switzerland",1947,2019,16,155,69,86,0,0
"v0","CL","Chile",1989,2021,9,65,0,63,0,2
"v0","CO","Colombia",1970,2018,9,45,12,9,24,0
"v0","CR","Costa Rica",1970,2018,7,35,29,0,6,0
"v0","CY","Cyprus",1970,2016,7,44,22,4,18,0
"v0","CZ","Czechia",1990,2017,12,51,50,1,0,0
"v0","DE","Germany",1949,2025,11,115,56,59,0,0
"v0","DK","Denmark",1945,2019,17,236,131,105,0,0
"v0","DO","Dominican Republic",1978,2016,3,38,29,0,9,0
"v0","EC","Ecuador",1979,2017,9,66,36,4,20,6
"v0","EE","Estonia",1992,2019,12,50,41,6,3,0
"v0","ES","Spain",1977,2023,23,154,108,45,0,1
"v0","FI","Finland",1945,2019,11,158,88,70,0,0
"v0","FR","France",1946,2022,16,121,62,55,4,0
"v0","GB","United Kingdom",1945,2024,12,106,71,35,0,0
"v0","GE","Georgia",1992,2020,10,27,24,3,0,0
"v0","GR","Greece",1974,2023,13,76,69,4,2,1
"v0","HR","Croatia",1990,2020,13,60,41,15,3,1
"v0","HU","Hungary",1990,2022,12,50,42,7,1,0
"v0","IE","Ireland",1948,2020,12,100,63,37,0,0
"v0","IL","Israel",1949,2022,33,218,91,102,12,13
"v0","IS","Iceland",1946,2021,14,116,84,32,0,0
"v0","IT","Italy",1946,2018,27,132,55,69,0,8
"v0","JP","Japan",1960,2021,12,120,80,40,0,0
"v0","KR","South Korea",1992,2020,10,25,20,5,0,0
"v0","LK","Sri Lanka",1947,2015,4,32,8,17,7,0
"v0","LT","Lithuania",1992,2020,13,50,43,2,5,0
"v0","LU","Luxembourg",1945,2013,7,74,44,30,0,0
"v0","LV","Latvia",1993,2022,16,55,41,7,1,6
"v0","MD","Moldova",1994,2019,6,22,22,0,0,0
"v0","ME","Montenegro",1990,2023,13,50,32,18,0,0
"v0","MK","North Macedonia",1990,2016,11,57,33,23,1,0
"v0","MT","Malta",1971,2022,2,24,14,0,10,0
"v0","MX","Mexico",1946,2018,10,86,31,31,1,23
"v0","NL","Netherlands",1946,2021,23,188,123,65,0,0
"v0","NO","Norway",1945,2017,10,129,71,58,0,0
"v0","NZ","New Zealand",1946,2020,10,108,64,42,1,1
"v0","PA","Panama",1980,2019,6,26,4,8,14,0
"v0","PE","Peru",1978,2016,5,18,7,0,11,0
"v0","PL","Poland",1972,2019,12,53,37,10,6,0
"v0","PT","Portugal",1975,2022,15,121,73,47,1,0
"v0","RO","Romania",1990,2016,11,35,19,5,1,10
"v0","RS","Serbia",1990,2023,18,80,41,39,0,0
"v0","RU","Russia",1993,2011,10,31,28,3,0,0
"v0","SE","Sweden",1944,2022,8,144,103,41,0,0
"v0","SI","Slovenia",1990,2018,15,70,60,5,5,0
"v0","SK","Slovakia",1990,2016,14,54,47,7,0,0
"v0","TR","Türkiye",1950,2018,12,65,44,17,4,0
"v0","UA","Ukraine",1994,2019,11,35,31,3,1,0
"v0","US","United States",1944,2024,2,78,52,26,0,0
"v0","UY","Uruguay",1984,2014,3,16,2,0,14,0
"v0","ZA","South Africa",1989,2019,6,24,18,4,2,0
1 release iso2 country first_year last_year parties election_year_rows both_text_expert text_only expert_only temporal_propagation
2 v0 AL Albania 1991 2021 9 51 19 23 9 0
3 v0 AM Armenia 1995 2021 8 26 25 1 0 0
4 v0 AR Argentina 1983 2019 9 51 27 6 9 9
5 v0 AT Austria 1949 2019 7 84 64 20 0 0
6 v0 AU Australia 1946 2022 9 129 70 53 6 0
7 v0 AZ Azerbaijan 1995 2015 3 9 5 1 3 0
8 v0 BA Bosnia and Herzegovina 1990 2022 9 59 43 16 0 0
9 v0 BE Belgium 1946 2019 20 194 114 77 3 0
10 v0 BG Bulgaria 1990 2017 12 43 37 5 0 1
11 v0 BO Bolivia 1979 2014 2 13 2 1 10 0
12 v0 BR Brazil 1982 2022 8 69 3 57 6 3
13 v0 BY Belarus 1995 2008 1 4 1 0 3 0
14 v0 CA Canada 1945 2021 8 104 64 39 1 0
15 v0 CH Switzerland 1947 2019 16 155 69 86 0 0
16 v0 CL Chile 1989 2021 9 65 0 63 0 2
17 v0 CO Colombia 1970 2018 9 45 12 9 24 0
18 v0 CR Costa Rica 1970 2018 7 35 29 0 6 0
19 v0 CY Cyprus 1970 2016 7 44 22 4 18 0
20 v0 CZ Czechia 1990 2017 12 51 50 1 0 0
21 v0 DE Germany 1949 2025 11 115 56 59 0 0
22 v0 DK Denmark 1945 2019 17 236 131 105 0 0
23 v0 DO Dominican Republic 1978 2016 3 38 29 0 9 0
24 v0 EC Ecuador 1979 2017 9 66 36 4 20 6
25 v0 EE Estonia 1992 2019 12 50 41 6 3 0
26 v0 ES Spain 1977 2023 23 154 108 45 0 1
27 v0 FI Finland 1945 2019 11 158 88 70 0 0
28 v0 FR France 1946 2022 16 121 62 55 4 0
29 v0 GB United Kingdom 1945 2024 12 106 71 35 0 0
30 v0 GE Georgia 1992 2020 10 27 24 3 0 0
31 v0 GR Greece 1974 2023 13 76 69 4 2 1
32 v0 HR Croatia 1990 2020 13 60 41 15 3 1
33 v0 HU Hungary 1990 2022 12 50 42 7 1 0
34 v0 IE Ireland 1948 2020 12 100 63 37 0 0
35 v0 IL Israel 1949 2022 33 218 91 102 12 13
36 v0 IS Iceland 1946 2021 14 116 84 32 0 0
37 v0 IT Italy 1946 2018 27 132 55 69 0 8
38 v0 JP Japan 1960 2021 12 120 80 40 0 0
39 v0 KR South Korea 1992 2020 10 25 20 5 0 0
40 v0 LK Sri Lanka 1947 2015 4 32 8 17 7 0
41 v0 LT Lithuania 1992 2020 13 50 43 2 5 0
42 v0 LU Luxembourg 1945 2013 7 74 44 30 0 0
43 v0 LV Latvia 1993 2022 16 55 41 7 1 6
44 v0 MD Moldova 1994 2019 6 22 22 0 0 0
45 v0 ME Montenegro 1990 2023 13 50 32 18 0 0
46 v0 MK North Macedonia 1990 2016 11 57 33 23 1 0
47 v0 MT Malta 1971 2022 2 24 14 0 10 0
48 v0 MX Mexico 1946 2018 10 86 31 31 1 23
49 v0 NL Netherlands 1946 2021 23 188 123 65 0 0
50 v0 NO Norway 1945 2017 10 129 71 58 0 0
51 v0 NZ New Zealand 1946 2020 10 108 64 42 1 1
52 v0 PA Panama 1980 2019 6 26 4 8 14 0
53 v0 PE Peru 1978 2016 5 18 7 0 11 0
54 v0 PL Poland 1972 2019 12 53 37 10 6 0
55 v0 PT Portugal 1975 2022 15 121 73 47 1 0
56 v0 RO Romania 1990 2016 11 35 19 5 1 10
57 v0 RS Serbia 1990 2023 18 80 41 39 0 0
58 v0 RU Russia 1993 2011 10 31 28 3 0 0
59 v0 SE Sweden 1944 2022 8 144 103 41 0 0
60 v0 SI Slovenia 1990 2018 15 70 60 5 5 0
61 v0 SK Slovakia 1990 2016 14 54 47 7 0 0
62 v0 TR Türkiye 1950 2018 12 65 44 17 4 0
63 v0 UA Ukraine 1994 2019 11 35 31 3 1 0
64 v0 US United States 1944 2024 2 78 52 26 0 0
65 v0 UY Uruguay 1984 2014 3 16 2 0 14 0
66 v0 ZA South Africa 1989 2019 6 24 18 4 2 0
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file_name,variable_name,label,description,type,allowed_values,range_min,range_max,missing_value_code,unit,scale_direction,constructed_from,construction_rule,notes
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),party_id,PartyFacts party identifier,Identifier for the individual party,integer,,,,,identifier,,PartyFacts crosswalk,Assigned during party harmonization,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),party_name_english,English party name,Party name from the harmonized output,string,,,,,name,,Party metadata,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),party_name_short,Short party name,Short party label from the harmonized output,string,,,,,name,,Party metadata,,May be missing
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),country,Country code,ISO2 or historical country-code identifier,string,,,,,identifier,,Source metadata and PartyFacts,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),year,Calendar year,Calendar year of the election-year estimate,integer,,1944,2025,,year,,Election and model-year metadata,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),segment_num,Party segment number,Segment number within party after splitting at long evidence gaps,integer,,1,,,segment,,Party history segmentation,Main segment is coded 1,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),union_party_id,Union or alliance PartyFacts identifier,Identifier of parent union or alliance where applicable,integer,,,,,identifier,,Alliance mapping,,Missing if party is not represented through a union or alliance
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),in_union,Union membership indicator,Indicator that the row is associated with a union or alliance,boolean,0;1,0,1,,indicator,,Alliance mapping,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),pervote,Vote share,Vote share at the election year,numeric,,0,100,,percent,,Election metadata,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),economic_lr,Economic left-right posterior mean,Posterior mean of economic left-right position,numeric,,0,1,,unit interval,0=left; 1=right,Posterior draws,Mean after inverse-logit transformation,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),galtan,Cultural cosmopolitan--traditionalist posterior mean,Posterior mean of cultural cosmopolitan--traditionalist position,numeric,,0,1,,unit interval,0=cosmopolitan; 1=traditionalist,Posterior draws,Mean after inverse-logit transformation,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),economic_lr_se,Economic posterior standard error,Posterior standard deviation for economic_lr,numeric,,0,,,unit interval,,Posterior draws,Standard deviation over posterior draws,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),galtan_se,Cultural posterior standard error,Posterior standard deviation for the cultural estimate,numeric,,0,,,unit interval,,Posterior draws,Standard deviation over posterior draws,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),economic_lr_q025,Economic lower posterior interval,2.5 percent posterior quantile for economic_lr,numeric,,0,1,,unit interval,0=left; 1=right,Posterior draws,Quantile over posterior draws,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),economic_lr_q975,Economic upper posterior interval,97.5 percent posterior quantile for economic_lr,numeric,,0,1,,unit interval,0=left; 1=right,Posterior draws,Quantile over posterior draws,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),galtan_q025,Cultural lower posterior interval,2.5 percent posterior quantile for the cultural estimate,numeric,,0,1,,unit interval,0=cosmopolitan; 1=traditionalist,Posterior draws,Quantile over posterior draws,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),galtan_q975,Cultural upper posterior interval,97.5 percent posterior quantile for the cultural estimate,numeric,,0,1,,unit interval,0=cosmopolitan; 1=traditionalist,Posterior draws,Quantile over posterior draws,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),election_id,Election identifier,Election identifier where available,string,,,,,identifier,,Election metadata,,Missing where no election identifier is available
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),election_date,Election date,Election date where available,date,,,,,date,,Election metadata,,Missing in current processed election metadata
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),has_text,Text support indicator,Indicator for direct or nearby text evidence,boolean,0;1,0,1,,indicator,,Source-support construction,Nearby threshold documented in source_support_dictionary.csv,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),has_expert,Expert support indicator,Indicator for direct or nearby expert evidence,boolean,0;1,0,1,,indicator,,Source-support construction,Nearby threshold documented in source_support_dictionary.csv,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),n_text_sources,Number of text sources,Number of distinct text source families contributing direct or nearby evidence,integer,,0,,,count,,Source-support construction,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),n_expert_sources,Number of expert sources,Number of distinct expert source families contributing direct or nearby evidence,integer,,0,,,count,,Source-support construction,,
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),nearest_text_distance,Nearest text distance,Absolute distance in years to nearest text observation used to inform trajectory,numeric,,0,,,years,,Source-support construction,,Missing if no text observation exists for the party-country key
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),nearest_expert_distance,Nearest expert distance,Absolute distance in years to nearest expert observation used to inform trajectory,numeric,,0,,,years,,Source-support construction,,Missing if no expert observation exists for the party-country key
party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip),source_support_class,Source-support class,Summary class of text/expert support,string,both_direct_or_nearby; text_only_direct_or_nearby; expert_only_direct_or_nearby; temporal_propagation,,,,categorical,,Source-support construction,,
party_2d_annual_model_output_vN.csv (inside party_2d_annual_model_output_vN.zip),all fields,Annual model output fields,Same model-output fields as the production annual party-position file plus no source-support augmentation,mixed,,,,,,,Posterior processing,,Secondary model output
1 file_name variable_name label description type allowed_values range_min range_max missing_value_code unit scale_direction constructed_from construction_rule notes
2 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) party_id PartyFacts party identifier Identifier for the individual party integer identifier PartyFacts crosswalk Assigned during party harmonization
3 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) party_name_english English party name Party name from the harmonized output string name Party metadata
4 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) party_name_short Short party name Short party label from the harmonized output string name Party metadata May be missing
5 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) country Country code ISO2 or historical country-code identifier string identifier Source metadata and PartyFacts
6 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) year Calendar year Calendar year of the election-year estimate integer 1944 2025 year Election and model-year metadata
7 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) segment_num Party segment number Segment number within party after splitting at long evidence gaps integer 1 segment Party history segmentation Main segment is coded 1
8 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) union_party_id Union or alliance PartyFacts identifier Identifier of parent union or alliance where applicable integer identifier Alliance mapping Missing if party is not represented through a union or alliance
9 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) in_union Union membership indicator Indicator that the row is associated with a union or alliance boolean 0;1 0 1 indicator Alliance mapping
10 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) pervote Vote share Vote share at the election year numeric 0 100 percent Election metadata
11 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) economic_lr Economic left-right posterior mean Posterior mean of economic left-right position numeric 0 1 unit interval 0=left; 1=right Posterior draws Mean after inverse-logit transformation
12 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) galtan Cultural cosmopolitan--traditionalist posterior mean Posterior mean of cultural cosmopolitan--traditionalist position numeric 0 1 unit interval 0=cosmopolitan; 1=traditionalist Posterior draws Mean after inverse-logit transformation
13 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) economic_lr_se Economic posterior standard error Posterior standard deviation for economic_lr numeric 0 unit interval Posterior draws Standard deviation over posterior draws
14 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) galtan_se Cultural posterior standard error Posterior standard deviation for the cultural estimate numeric 0 unit interval Posterior draws Standard deviation over posterior draws
15 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) economic_lr_q025 Economic lower posterior interval 2.5 percent posterior quantile for economic_lr numeric 0 1 unit interval 0=left; 1=right Posterior draws Quantile over posterior draws
16 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) economic_lr_q975 Economic upper posterior interval 97.5 percent posterior quantile for economic_lr numeric 0 1 unit interval 0=left; 1=right Posterior draws Quantile over posterior draws
17 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) galtan_q025 Cultural lower posterior interval 2.5 percent posterior quantile for the cultural estimate numeric 0 1 unit interval 0=cosmopolitan; 1=traditionalist Posterior draws Quantile over posterior draws
18 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) galtan_q975 Cultural upper posterior interval 97.5 percent posterior quantile for the cultural estimate numeric 0 1 unit interval 0=cosmopolitan; 1=traditionalist Posterior draws Quantile over posterior draws
19 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) election_id Election identifier Election identifier where available string identifier Election metadata Missing where no election identifier is available
20 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) election_date Election date Election date where available date date Election metadata Missing in current processed election metadata
21 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) has_text Text support indicator Indicator for direct or nearby text evidence boolean 0;1 0 1 indicator Source-support construction Nearby threshold documented in source_support_dictionary.csv
22 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) has_expert Expert support indicator Indicator for direct or nearby expert evidence boolean 0;1 0 1 indicator Source-support construction Nearby threshold documented in source_support_dictionary.csv
23 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) n_text_sources Number of text sources Number of distinct text source families contributing direct or nearby evidence integer 0 count Source-support construction
24 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) n_expert_sources Number of expert sources Number of distinct expert source families contributing direct or nearby evidence integer 0 count Source-support construction
25 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) nearest_text_distance Nearest text distance Absolute distance in years to nearest text observation used to inform trajectory numeric 0 years Source-support construction Missing if no text observation exists for the party-country key
26 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) nearest_expert_distance Nearest expert distance Absolute distance in years to nearest expert observation used to inform trajectory numeric 0 years Source-support construction Missing if no expert observation exists for the party-country key
27 party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.csv (inside party_2d_election_year_panel_vN.zip) source_support_class Source-support class Summary class of text/expert support string both_direct_or_nearby; text_only_direct_or_nearby; expert_only_direct_or_nearby; temporal_propagation categorical Source-support construction
28 party_2d_annual_model_output_vN.csv (inside party_2d_annual_model_output_vN.zip) all fields Annual model output fields Same model-output fields as the production annual party-position file plus no source-support augmentation mixed Posterior processing Secondary model output
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field,value,definition,notes
direct_support,observation in same calendar year,Observation in the same calendar year as the election-year estimate,
nearby_support,observation within threshold,Observation within the stated distance threshold of the election-year estimate,
nearby_support_threshold_years,2,Numerical threshold in years used to classify nearby support,
temporal_propagation,no nearby observation,No text or expert observation within the nearby threshold,
source_support_class,both_direct_or_nearby,Both text and expert evidence are direct or nearby,
source_support_class,text_only_direct_or_nearby,Text evidence is direct or nearby and expert evidence is not,
source_support_class,expert_only_direct_or_nearby,Expert evidence is direct or nearby and text evidence is not,
source_support_class,temporal_propagation,Neither text nor expert evidence is direct or nearby,
1 field value definition notes
2 direct_support observation in same calendar year Observation in the same calendar year as the election-year estimate
3 nearby_support observation within threshold Observation within the stated distance threshold of the election-year estimate
4 nearby_support_threshold_years 2 Numerical threshold in years used to classify nearby support
5 temporal_propagation no nearby observation No text or expert observation within the nearby threshold
6 source_support_class both_direct_or_nearby Both text and expert evidence are direct or nearby
7 source_support_class text_only_direct_or_nearby Text evidence is direct or nearby and expert evidence is not
8 source_support_class expert_only_direct_or_nearby Expert evidence is direct or nearby and text evidence is not
9 source_support_class temporal_propagation Neither text nor expert evidence is direct or nearby